| Match 1 (1):
Reference (000274 .. 000284, of 8267): |
Subject (014638 .. 014648, of 28080): |
|
the best explanation for the origin of the information necessary to |
the best explanation for the origin of the information necessary to |
| Match 2 (1):
Reference (000277 .. 000286, of 8267): |
Subject (000493 .. 000503, of 28080): |
|
for the origin of the information necessary to produce the |
for the origin of the biological information necessary to produce the |
| Match 3 (1):
Reference (000372 .. 000381, of 8267): |
Subject (014757 .. 014777, of 28080): |
|
and their combination for the origin of biological information Further |
stand as the best rather than just a plausible explanation for the origin of the biological information that arises in the |
| Match 4 (1):
Reference (000415 .. 000430, of 8267): |
Subject (014498 .. 014512, of 28080): |
|
information theorist Henry Quastler that the creation of new information is habitually associated with conscious activity |
information theorist Henry Quastler the creation of new information is habitually associated with conscious activity |
| Match 5 (1):
Reference (000440 .. 000451, of 8267): |
Subject (014271 .. 014279, of 28080): |
|
as the best most causally adequate explanation for the origin of the |
as the best most causally adequate explanation of the |
| Match 6 (1):
Reference (000447 .. 000456, of 8267): |
Subject (000493 .. 000503, of 28080): |
|
for the origin of the information necessary to produce the |
for the origin of the biological information necessary to produce the |
| Match 7 (1):
Reference (000502 .. 000511, of 8267): |
Subject (014566 .. 014579, of 28080): |
|
of naturalistic explanations for the origin of the information necessary |
of naturalistic explanation for the origin of the genetic information required to make a |
| Match 8 (1):
Reference (000547 .. 000556, of 8267): |
Subject (014638 .. 014651, of 28080): |
|
the best explanation for the information necessary to the first |
the best explanation for the origin of the information necessary to build the first |
| Match 9 (1):
Reference (000581 .. 000591, of 8267): |
Subject (014640 .. 014651, of 28080): |
|
explanation for the origin of the information necessary to the first |
explanation for the origin of the information necessary to build the first |
| Match 10 (1):
Reference (000639 .. 000651, of 8267): |
Subject (000494 .. 000502, of 28080): |
|
the origin of the novel biological form and the information necessary to produce |
the origin of the biological information necessary to produce |
| Match 11 (1):
Reference (000698 .. 000709, of 8267): |
Subject (020353 .. 020361, of 28080): |
|
of life including the problem of explaining the origin of biological information |
of the problem of the origin of biological information |
| Match 12 (1):
Reference (000869 .. 000878, of 8267): |
Subject (014067 .. 014077, of 28080): |
|
the origin of the information that arises during the Cambrian |
the origin of the new information that arises in the Cambrian |
| Match 13 (1):
Reference (000904 .. 000915, of 8267): |
Subject (000571 .. 000587, of 28080): |
|
time at least nineteen and perhaps as many as thirty five phyla |
time During this event at least nineteen and as many as thirty five of forty total phyla |
| Match 14 (1):
Reference (000904 .. 000925, of 8267): |
Subject (000571 .. 000593, of 28080): |
|
time at least nineteen and perhaps as many as thirty five phyla of forty total phyla made their first appearance on Earth |
time During this event at least nineteen and as many as thirty five of forty total phyla made their first appearance on earth |
| Match 15 (1):
Reference (000943 .. 000972, of 8267): |
Subject (000594 .. 000624, of 28080): |
|
1993 Phyla constitute the highest categories in the animal kingdom with each phylum exhibiting a unique architecture blueprint or structural body plan Familiar examples of basic animal body plans are |
3 Phyla constitute the highest biological categories in the animal kingdom with each phylum exhibiting a unique architecture blueprint or structural body plan Familiar examples of basic animal body plans are |
| Match 16 (1):
Reference (000973 .. 000982, of 8267): |
Subject (000629 .. 000641, of 28080): |
|
mollusks squids and shellfish arthropods crustaceans insects and trilobites and |
mollusks squids and shellfish arthropods crustaceans insects and trilobites echinoderms sea star and |
| Match 17 (1):
Reference (001000 .. 001012, of 8267): |
Subject (001330 .. 001344, of 28080): |
|
the first appearance of invertebrate phyla with mineralized exoskeletons including members of the |
the first appearance of all the invertebrate phyla and subphyla with mineralized exoskeletons including the |
| Match 18 (1):
Reference (001031 .. 001040, of 8267): |
Subject (001600 .. 001616, of 28080): |
|
Ctenophora Annelida Onycophora Phoronida and Priapulida Fossil discoveries from the |
Ctenophora see figure 5 Annelida Onycophora Phoronida see figure 6 and Priapulida Burgess Shale fossils from the |
| Match 19 (1):
Reference (001040 .. 001049, of 8267): |
Subject (001556 .. 001566, of 28080): |
|
the Lower Cambrian Yuanshan Formation in China have also shown |
the lower Cambrian Yuanshan Formation near Chengjiang China have also shown |
| Match 20 (1):
Reference (001080 .. 001108, of 8267): |
Subject (001005 .. 001035, of 28080): |
|
To say that the fauna of the Cambrian period appeared in a geologically sudden manner also implies the absence of clear transitional intermediate forms connecting Cambrian animals with simpler |
To say that the fauna of the Cambrian period appeared in a geologically sudden manner also implies the absence of clear transitional intermediates connecting the complex Cambrian animals with those simpler |
| Match 21 (1):
Reference (001159 .. 001170, of 8267): |
Subject (007055 .. 007067, of 28080): |
|
whether the neo Darwinian mechanism of natural selection acting on random mutations |
either the neo Darwinian mechanism of natural selection acting on random genetic mutations |
| Match 22 (1):
Reference (001160 .. 001169, of 8267): |
Subject (000272 .. 000280, of 28080): |
|
the neo Darwinian mechanism of natural selection acting on random |
the Darwinian mechanism of natural selection acting on random |
| Match 23 (1):
Reference (001160 .. 001172, of 8267): |
Subject (018581 .. 018595, of 28080): |
|
the neo Darwinian mechanism of natural selection acting on random mutations can generate |
the mechanism of natural selection acting on random mutations in DNA cannot in principle generate |
| Match 24 (1):
Reference (001191 .. 001232, of 8267): |
Subject (002950 .. 002991, of 28080): |
|
must define the term information as used in biology In classical Shannon information theory the amount of information in a system is inversely related to the probability of the arrangement of constituents in a system or the characters along a communication channel |
must define the term information as used in biology In classical Shannon information theory the amount of information in a system is inversely related to the probability of the arrangement of constituents in a system or the characters along a communication channel |
| Match 25 (1):
Reference (001235 .. 001303, of 8267): |
Subject (002993 .. 003061, of 28080): |
|
The more improbable or complex the arrangement the more Shannon information or information carrying capacity a string or system possesses Since the 1960s mathematical biologists have realized that Shannon s theory could be applied to the analysis of DNA and proteins to measure their information carrying capacity Since DNA contains the assembly instructions for building proteins the information processing system in the cell represents a kind of communication channel |
The more improbable or complex the arrangement the more Shannon information or information carrying capacity a string or system possesses Since the 1960s mathematical biologists have realized that Shannon s theory could be applied to the analysis of DNA and proteins to measure their information carrying capacity Since DNA contains the assembly instructions for building proteins the information processing system in the cell represents a kind of communication channel |
| Match 26 (1):
Reference (001307 .. 001438, of 8267): |
Subject (003063 .. 003194, of 28080): |
|
Further DNA conveys information via specifically arranged sequences of four different chemicals called nucleotide bases that function as alphabetic or digital characters in a linear array Since each of the four bases has a roughly equiprobable chance of occurring at each site along the spine of the DNA molecule biologists can calculate the probability and thus the information carrying capacity of any particular sequence n bases long The ease with which information theory applies to molecular biology has created confusion about the type of information that DNA and proteins possess Sequences of nucleotide bases in DNA or amino acids in a protein are highly improbable and thus have a large information carrying capacity But like meaningful sentences or lines of computer code genes and proteins are also specified with respect to function |
Further DNA conveys information via specifically arranged sequences of four different chemicals called nucleotide bases that function as alphabetic or digital characters in a linear array Since each of the four bases has a roughly equiprobable chance of occurring at each site along the spine of the DNA molecule biologists can calculate the probability and thus the information carrying capacity of any particular sequence n bases long The ease with which information theory applies to molecular biology has created confusion about the type of information that DNA and proteins possess Sequences of nucleotide bases in DNA or amino acids in a protein are highly improbable and thus have a large information carrying capacity But like meaningful sentences or lines of computer code genes and proteins are also specified with respect to function |
| Match 27 (1):
Reference (001440 .. 001508, of 8267): |
Subject (003196 .. 003262, of 28080): |
|
as the meaning of a sentence depends upon the specific arrangement of the letters in the sentence so too does the function of a gene sequence depend upon the specific arrangement of the nucleotide bases in the gene Thus as Sarkar points out molecular biologists beginning with Francis Crick have equated information not only with complexity but also with specificity where specificity or specified has meant necessary to function |
as the meaning of a sentence depends upon the specific arrangement of the letters in the sentence so too does the function of a gene sequence depend upon the specific arrangement of the nucleotide bases in the gene Thus as Sarkar points out molecular biologists beginning with Francis Crick have equated information not only with complexity but also with specificity where specificity has meant necessary to function |
| Match 28 (1):
Reference (001554 .. 001564, of 8267): |
Subject (003732 .. 003748, of 28080): |
|
Cambrian explosion represents a remarkable jump in the specified complexity or |
Cambrian explosion represents a remarkable jump in the specified information or specified complexity of the biological world |
| Match 29 (1):
Reference (001560 .. 001570, of 8267): |
Subject (002712 .. 002723, of 28080): |
|
in the specified complexity or CSI of the biological world For |
in the information content or specified complexity of the biological world For |
| Match 30 (1):
Reference (001574 .. 001584, of 8267): |
Subject (002733 .. 002747, of 28080): |
|
years the biological realm included little more than bacteria and algae |
s history the biological realm included little more than unicellular bacteria and blue green algae |
| Match 31 (1):
Reference (001624 .. 001634, of 8267): |
Subject (002901 .. 002911, of 28080): |
|
and then to a much greater extent the Cambrian explosion 530 |
and then to a much greater extent the Cambrian explosion 530 |
| Match 32 (1):
Reference (001631 .. 001642, of 8267): |
Subject (003713 .. 003723, of 28080): |
|
the Cambrian explosion 530 mya represented steep climbs up the biological complexity |
the Cambrian explosion represents a steep climb up the biology complexity |
| Match 33 (1):
Reference (001655 .. 001667, of 8267): |
Subject (003310 .. 003320, of 28080): |
|
the Cambrian animals is to assess the number of new cell types that |
the Cambrian is to assess the number of cell types that |
| Match 34 (1):
Reference (001718 .. 001731, of 8267): |
Subject (003339 .. 003353, of 28080): |
|
Functionally more complex animals require more cell types to perform their more diverse functions |
Functionally more complex animal forms require more cell types to perform their more diverse functions |
| Match 35 (1):
Reference (001740 .. 001785, of 8267): |
Subject (003457 .. 003504, of 28080): |
|
proteins New proteins in turn require new genetic information Thus an increase in the number of cell types implies at minimum a considerable increase in the amount of specified genetic information Molecular biologists have recently estimated that a minimally complex single celled organism would require between |
proteins in turn require new genetic information encoded in DNA Thus an increase in the number of cell types implies at a minimum a considerable increase in the amount of specified genetic information Molecular biologists have recently estimated that a minimally complex single celled organism would require between |
| Match 36 (1):
Reference (001785 .. 001800, of 8267): |
Subject (003520 .. 003535, of 28080): |
|
between 318 and 562 kilobase pairs of DNA to produce the proteins necessary to maintain life |
between 318 and 562 kilobase pairs of DNA to produce the proteins necessary to maintain life |
| Match 37 (1):
Reference (001803 .. 001824, of 8267): |
Subject (003537 .. 003558, of 28080): |
|
More complex single cells might require upward of a million base pairs Yet to build the proteins necessary to sustain a complex |
More complex single cells might require upward of 1 million base pairs Yet to build the proteins necessary to sustain a complex |
| Match 38 (1):
Reference (001839 .. 001854, of 8267): |
Subject (003571 .. 003585, of 28080): |
|
genome size of the modern fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster an arthropod is approximately 120 million base pairs |
genome size of the fly Drosophila melanogaster an arthropod is approximately 120 million base pairs |
| Match 39 (1):
Reference (001861 .. 001880, of 8267): |
Subject (003608 .. 003627, of 28080): |
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Transitions from a single cell to colonies of cells to complex animals represent significant and in principle measurable increases in |
transitions from a single cell to colonies of cells to complex animals represent significant and in principle measurable increases in |
| Match 40 (1):
Reference (002064 .. 002086, of 8267): |
Subject (014998 .. 015022, of 28080): |
|
Many scientists and mathematicians have questioned the ability of mutation and selection to generate information in the form of novel genes and proteins |
a number of scientists and mathematicians have questioned the ability of mutation and selection to generate information in the form of novel genes and proteins |
| Match 41 (1):
Reference (002090 .. 002108, of 8267): |
Subject (015026 .. 015044, of 28080): |
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derives from consideration of the extreme improbability and specificity of functional genes and proteins A typical gene contains over |
derived from consideration of the extreme improbability and specificity of functional genes and proteins A typical gene contains over |
| Match 42 (1):
Reference (002115 .. 002125, of 8267): |
Subject (015052 .. 015062, of 28080): |
|
any specific arrangement of four nucleotide bases of length n there |
any specific arrangement of four nucleotide bases of length n there |
| Match 43 (1):
Reference (002127 .. 002207, of 8267): |
Subject (015064 .. 015143, of 28080): |
|
a corresponding number of possible arrangements of bases 4 n For any protein there are 20n possible arrangements of protein forming amino acids A gene 999 bases in length represents one of 4999 possible nucleotide sequences a protein of 333 amino acids is one of 20333 possibilities Since the 1960s biologists have generally thought functional proteins to be rare among the set of possible amino acid sequences of corresponding length Some have used an analogy with human language to illustrate why |
a corresponding number of 4n possible arrangements of bases For any protein there are 20n possible arrangements of protein forming amino acids A gene of 999 bases in length represents one of 4999 possible nucleotide sequences a protein of 333 amino acids one of 20333 possibilities Since the 1960s biologists have generally thought functional proteins to be rare among the set of possible amino acid sequences of corresponding length Some have used an analogy with human language to illustrate why |
| Match 44 (1):
Reference (002222 .. 002285, of 8267): |
Subject (015154 .. 015218, of 28080): |
|
sentences are extremely rare among the set of possible combinations of English letters especially as sequence length grows The ratio of meaningful Metter words to Metter sequences is 1 10 the ratio of 100 letter sentences to possible 100 letter strings is roughly 1 10100 Further Denton shows that most meaningful sentences are highly isolated from one another in the space of possible combinations |
sentences are extremely rare among the set of possible combinations of English letters especially as sequence length grows The ratio of meaningful 12 letter words to 12 letter sequences is 1 1014 the ratio of 100 letter sentences to possible 100 letter strings is 1 10100 Further Denton shows that most meaningful sentences are highly isolated from one another in the space of possible combinations |
| Match 45 (1):
Reference (002287 .. 002337, of 8267): |
Subject (015220 .. 015270, of 28080): |
|
that random substitutions of letters will after a very few changes inevitably degrade meaning Apart from a few closely clustered sentences accessible by random substitution the overwhelming majority of meaningful sentences lie probabilistically speaking beyond the reach of random search Denton and others have argued that similar constraints apply to genes |
that random substitutions of letters will after a very few changes inevitably degrade meaning Apart from a few closely clustered sentences accessible by random substitution the overwhelming majority of meaningful sentences lie probabilistically speaking beyond the reach of random search Denton and others have argued that similar constraints apply to genes |
| Match 46 (1):
Reference (002343 .. 002373, of 8267): |
Subject (015271 .. 015300, of 28080): |
|
They have questioned whether an undirected search via mutation selection would have a reasonable chance of locating new islands of function representing fundamentally new genes or proteins within the time available |
They have questioned therefore whether an undirected search via mutation selection would have a reasonable chance of locating new islands of function representing fundamentally new genes or proteins within available |
| Match 47 (1):
Reference (002380 .. 002413, of 8267): |
Subject (015303 .. 015336, of 28080): |
|
Some have also argued that alterations in sequencing would likely result in loss of protein function before fundamentally new function could arise Nevertheless neither the sensitivity of genes and proteins to functional loss as |
Some have also argued that alterations in sequencing would likely result in loss of protein function before fundamentally new function could arise Nevertheless neither the sensitivity of genes and proteins to functional loss as |
| Match 48 (1):
Reference (002380 .. 002469, of 8267): |
Subject (015303 .. 015392, of 28080): |
|
Some have also argued that alterations in sequencing would likely result in loss of protein function before fundamentally new function could arise Nevertheless neither the sensitivity of genes and proteins to functional loss as a result of sequence change nor the extent to which functional proteins are isolated within sequence space has been fully known Recently experiments in molecular biology have shed light on these questions A variety of mutagenesis techniques have shown that proteins and thus the genes that produce them are indeed highly specified relative to biological function |
Some have also argued that alterations in sequencing would likely result in loss of protein function before fundamentally new function could arise Nevertheless neither the sensitivity of genes and proteins to functional loss as the result of sequence change nor the extent to which functional proteins are isolated within sequence space has been fully known Recently experiments in molecular biology have shed light on these questions A variety of mutagenesis techniques have shown that proteins and thus the genes that produce them are indeed highly specified relative to biological function |
| Match 49 (1):
Reference (002483 .. 002503, of 8267): |
Subject (015394 .. 015414, of 28080): |
|
Mutagenesis research tests the sensitivity of proteins and by implication DNA to functional loss as a result of alterations in sequencing |
Mutagenesis research tests the sensitivity of proteins and by implication DNA to functional loss as a result of alterations in sequencing |
| Match 50 (1):
Reference (002512 .. 002524, of 8267): |
Subject (015437 .. 015451, of 28080): |
|
amino acid residues at many active site positions cannot vary without functional loss |
amino acid residues at many key active sites cannot vary at all without functional loss |
| Match 51 (1):
Reference (002587 .. 002661, of 8267): |
Subject (015505 .. 015581, of 28080): |
|
result in loss of protein function even when these changes occur at sites that allow variation when altered in isolation Cumulatively these constraints imply that proteins are highly sensitive to functional loss as a result of alterations in sequencing and that functional proteins represent highly isolated and improbable arrangements of amino acids arrangements that are far more improbable in fact than would be likely to arise by chance even given our multibillion year old universe |
result in rapid loss of protein function even when these changes occur at sites that allow variation when altered in isolation 93 Cumulatively these constraints imply that proteins are highly sensitive to functional loss as a result of alterations in the sequencing and that functional proteins represent highly isolated and improbable arrangements of amino acids arrangements that are far more improbable in fact than would be likely to arise by chance even given our multibillionyear old universe |
| Match 52 (1):
Reference (002669 .. 002876, of 8267): |
Subject (015583 .. 015790, of 28080): |
|
Of course neo Darwinists do not envision a completely random search through the space of possible nucleotide sequences They see natural selection acting to preserve small advantageous variations in genetic sequences and their corresponding protein products Richard Dawkins 1996 for example likens an organism to a high mountain peak He compares climbing the sheer precipice up the front side of the mountain to building a new organism by chance He acknowledges that this approach up Mount Improbable will not succeed Nevertheless he suggests that there is a gradual slope up the backside of the mountain that could be climbed in small incremental steps In his analogy the backside climb up Mount Improbable corresponds to the process of natural selection acting on random changes in the genetic text What chance alone cannot accomplish blindly or in one leap selection acting on mutations can accomplish through the cumulative effect of many slight successive steps Yet the extreme specificity and complexity of proteins presents a difficulty not only for the chance origin of specified biological information i e for random mutations acting alone but also for selection and mutation acting in concert Indeed mutagenesis experiments cast doubt on each of the two scenarios by which neo Darwinists envision new information arising |
Of course neo Darwinists do not envision a completely random search through the space of possible nucleotide sequences They see natural selection acting to preserve small advantageous variations in genetic sequences and their corresponding protein products Richard Dawkins for example likens an organism to a high mountain peak 95 He compares climbing the sheer precipice up the front side of the mountain to building a new organism by chance He acknowledges that this approach up Mount Improbable will not succeed Nevertheless he suggests that there is a gradual slope up the backside of the mountain that could be climbed in small incremental steps In his analogy the backside up Mount Improbable corresponds to the process of natural selection acting on random changes in the genetic text What chance alone cannot accomplish blindly or in one leap selection acting on mutations can accomplish through the cumulative effect of many slight successive steps Yet the extreme specificity and complexity of proteins present a diffi culty not only for the chance origin of specified biological information that is for random mutations acting alone but also for selection and mutation acting in concert Indeed mutagenesis experiments cast doubt on each of the two scenarios by which neo Darwinists envision new information arising |
| Match 53 (1):
Reference (002884 .. 003163, of 8267): |
Subject (015799 .. 016078, of 28080): |
|
Darwinists new functional genes either arise from noncoding sections in the genome or from preexisting genes Both scenarios are problematic In the first scenario neo Darwinists envision new genetic information arising from those sections of the genetic text that can presumably vary freely without consequence to the organism According to this scenario noncoding sections of the genome or duplicated sections of coding regions can experience a protracted period of neutral evolution during which alterations in nucleotide sequences have no discernible effect on the function of the organism Eventually however a new gene sequence will arise that can code for a novel protein At that point natural selection can favor the new gene and its functional protein product thus securing the preservation and heritability of both This scenario has the advantage of allowing the genome to vary through many generations as mutations search the space of possible base sequences The scenario has an overriding problem however the size of the combinatorial space and the extreme rarity and isolation of the functional sequences within that space of possibilities Since natural selection can do nothing to help generate new functional sequences but rather can only preserve such sequences once they have arisen chance alone random variation must do the work of information generation that is of finding the exceedingly rare functional sequences within a combinatorial universe of possibilities Yet the probability of randomly assembling or finding in the previous sense a functional sequence is vanishingly small even on a scale of billions of years Robert Sauer s mutagenesis experiments imply that the probability of attaining at random the correct sequencing for a short protein 100 amino acids long is about 1 in 1065 |
Darwinists either new functional genes arise from noncoding sections in the genome or functional genes arise from preexisting genes Both scenarios are problematic In the first scenario neo Darwinists envision new genetic information arising from those sections of the genetic text that can presumably vary freely without consequence to the organism According to this scenario noncoding sections of the genome or duplicated sections of coding regions can experience a protracted period of neutral evolution in which alterations in nucleotide sequences have no discernible effect on the function of the organism Eventually however a new gene sequence will arise that can code for a novel protein At that point natural selection can favor the new gene and its functional protein product thus securing the preservation and heritability of both This scenario has the advantage of allowing the genome to vary through many generations as mutations search the space of possible base sequences The scenario has an overriding problem however the size of the combinatorial space and the extreme rarity of the functional sequences within that space of possibilities Since natural selection can do nothing to help generate new functional sequences but rather can only preserve such sequences once they have arisen chance alone random variation must do the work of information generation that is of finding rare functional sequences within a universe of combinatorial possibilities Yet the probability of randomly assembling or finding in the previous sense a functional sequence is vanishingly small even on a scale of billions of years Robert Sauer s mutagenesis experiments imply that the probability of attaining at random the correct sequencing for a short protein 100 amino acids long is about 1 chance in 1065 |
| Match 54 (1):
Reference (003170 .. 003190, of 8267): |
Subject (016075 .. 016097, of 28080): |
|
1992 65 9 More recent mutagenesis research suggests that Sauer s methods imply probability measures that are if anything too optimistic |
1 chance in 1065 96 More recent mutagenesis research suggests that Sauer s methods imply probability measures that are if anything too optimistic |
| Match 55 (1):
Reference (003193 .. 003401, of 8267): |
Subject (016099 .. 016309, of 28080): |
|
Other considerations imply additional improbabilities First new Cambrian animals would require proteins much longer than 100 residues to perform necessary specialized functions Susumu Ohno 1996 has noted that Cambrian animals would have required complex proteins such as lysyl oxidase in order to support their stout body structures Lysyl oxidase molecules in extant organisms comprise over 400 amino acids These molecules represent highly complex nonrepetitive and tightly specified arrangements of matter Reasonable extrapolation from mutagenesis experiments done on shorter protein molecules suggests that the probability of producing functionally sequenced proteins of this length at random is far smaller than 1 in 10150 the point at which according to Dembski s calculation of the universal probability bound appeals to chance become absurd given the time and other probabilistic resources of the entire universe 1998 175 223 Second the Cambrian explosion took far less time 5 x 106 years than the duration of the universe 2 x 1010 years assumed by Dembski in his calculation Third DNA mutation rates are far too low to generate the novel genes and proteins necessary to building the Cambrian animals given the duration of the explosion As Susumo Ohno has explained Assuming a spontaneous mutation rate to be a generous 10 per base pair per year |
Other considerations imply additional improbabilities First new Cambrian animals would require proteins much longer than 100 residues to perform necessary specialized functions Susumu Ohno has noted that Cambrian animals would have required complex proteins such as lysyl oxidase in order to support their stout body structures 98 Lysyl oxidase molecules in extant organisms comprise over 400 amino acids These molecules represent highly complex nonrepetitive and tightly specified arrangements of matter Reasonable extrapolation from mutagenesis experiments done on shorter protein molecules suggests that the probability of producing functionally sequenced proteins of this length at random is far smaller than 1 chance in 10150 the point at which according to Dembski s calculation of the Universal Probability Bound appeals to chance become absurd given the time and other probabilistic resources of the entire universe 99 Second the Cambrian explosion took far less time 5 x 106 years than the duration of the universe as a whole 2 x 1010 years that Dembski assumes in his calculation Third DNA mutation rates are far too slow to generate the novel genes and proteins necessary to building the Cambrian animals given the duration of the explosion As Ohno has explained Assuming a spontaneous mutation rate to be a generous 10 9 per base pair per year |
| Match 56 (1):
Reference (003411 .. 003437, of 8267): |
Subject (016328 .. 016354, of 28080): |
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change in DNA base sequences It follows that 6 10 million years in the evolutionary time scale is but a blink of an eye The Cambrian explosion |
change in DNA base sequences It follows that 6 10 million years in the evolutionary time scale is but a blink of an eye The Cambrian explosion |
| Match 57 (1):
Reference (003438 .. 003458, of 8267): |
Subject (016366 .. 016386, of 28080): |
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within the time span of 6 10 million years can t possibly be explained by mutational divergence of individual gene functions |
within the time span of 6 10 million years can t possibly be explained by mutational divergence of individual gene functions |
| Match 58 (1):
Reference (003461 .. 003478, of 8267): |
Subject (016388 .. 016405, of 28080): |
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The selection mutation mechanism faces another probabilistic obstacle The animals that arise in the Cambrian exhibit structures that |
The mutation selection mechanism faces another probabilistic obstacle The animals that arise in the Cambrian exhibit structures that |
| Match 59 (1):
Reference (003482 .. 003636, of 8267): |
Subject (016407 .. 016559, of 28080): |
|
many new types of cells each of which would have required many types novel proteins to perform their specialized functions Further new cell types require systems of proteins that must as a condition of function act in close coordination with one another The unit of selection in such systems ascends to the system as a whole Natural selection selects for functional advantage But new cell types require whole systems of proteins to perform their distinctive functions In such cases natural selection cannot contribute to the process of information generation until after the information necessary to build the requisite system of proteins has arisen Thus random variations must again do the work of information generation and now not simply for one protein but for many proteins arising at nearly the same time Yet the odds of this occurring by chance are far smaller than the odds of the chance origin of a single gene or protein |
many new types of cells each of which would require many novel proteins to perform their specialized functions Further new cell types require systems of proteins that must as a condition of function act in close coordination with one another The unit of selection in such systems ascends to the system as a whole Natural selection selects for functional advantage But new cell types require whole systems of proteins to perform their distinctive functions In such cases natural selection cannot contribute to the process of information generation until after the information necessary to build the requisite system of proteins has arisen Thus random variations must again do the work of information generation and now not simply for one protein but for many proteins arising at nearly the same time Yet the odds of this occurring by chance are far smaller than the odds of the chance origin of a single gene or protein |
| Match 60 (1):
Reference (003638 .. 003656, of 8267): |
Subject (016562 .. 016581, of 28080): |
|
Richard Dawkins has acknowledged we can accept a certain amount of luck in our explanations but not too much |
Richard Dawkins has acknowledged that we can accept a certain amount of luck in our explanations but not too much |
| Match 61 (1):
Reference (003659 .. 003698, of 8267): |
Subject (016583 .. 016621, of 28080): |
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The neutral theory of evolution which by its own logic prevents natural selection from playing a role in generating genetic information until after the fact relies on entirely too much luck The sensitivity of proteins to functional loss as the |
The neutral theory of evolution which by its own logic prevents natural selection from playing a role in generating genetic information until after the fact relies on entirely too much luck The sensitivity of proteins to functional loss the |
| Match 62 (1):
Reference (003705 .. 003742, of 8267): |
Subject (016621 .. 016661, of 28080): |
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the need for long proteins to build new cell types and animals the need for whole new systems of proteins to service new cell types the brevity of the Cambrian explosion relative to mutation rates all suggest the |
the need for long proteins to build new cell types and animals the need for whole new systems of proteins to service new cell types the brevity of the Cambrian explosion relative to mutation rates all these factors suggest that the |
| Match 63 (1):
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implausibility of any scenario for the origin of Cambrian genetic information that |
s previous discussion of the origin of genetic information in a |
| Match 64 (1):
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chance alone unassisted by natural selection Yet the neutral theory requires novel genes and proteins to arise essentially by random mutation alone Adaptive advantage accrues after the generation of new functional genes and proteins Thus natural selection cannot play a role until new information bearing molecules have independently arisen Thus the neutral theory envisions the need to scale the steep face of a Dawkins style precipice |
chance unassisted by natural selection Yet the neutral theory requires novel genes and proteins to arise essentially by random mutation alone Adaptive advantage accrues after the generation of new functional genes and proteins Thus natural selection cannot play a role until new information bearing molecules have independently arisen Thus the neutral theory envisions the need to scale the steep face of a Dawkins style precipice |
| Match 65 (1):
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which there is no gradually sloping backside a situation that by Dawkins own logic is probabilistically untenable In the second scenario neo Darwinists envision novel genes and proteins arising by numerous successive mutations in |
which there is no gradually sloping backside a situation that by Dawkins s own logic is probabilistically untenable In the second scenario neo Darwinists envision novel genes and proteins arising by numerous successive mutations in |
| Match 66 (1):
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Subject (016785 .. 016853, of 28080): |
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preexisting genetic text that codes for proteins To adapt Dawkins s metaphor this scenario envisions gradually climbing down one functional peak and then ascending another Yet mutagenesis experiments again suggest a difficulty Recent experiments performed by Douglas Axe at Cambridge University show that even when exploring a region of sequence space populated by proteins of a single fold and function most multiple position changes quickly lead to loss of function |
preexisting genetic text that codes for proteins To adapt Dawkins s metaphor slightly this scenario envisions gradually climbing down one functional peak and then ascending another Yet mutagenesis experiments again suggest a difficulty Recent experiments performed by Douglas Axe at Cambridge University show that even when exploring a region of sequence space populated by proteins of a single function most multiple position changes quickly lead to loss of function |
| Match 67 (1):
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Yet to turn one protein into another with a completely novel structure and function requires |
Yet to turn one protein into another with a completely novel function requires |
| Match 68 (1):
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Subject (016878 .. 016906, of 28080): |
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Axe s results imply that in all probability random searches for novel proteins through sequence space will result in functional loss long before any novel functional protein will emerge |
Axe s results imply that in all probability random searches for novel proteins through sequence space will result in functional loss long before any novel functional protein will emerge |
| Match 69 (1):
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Subject (017432 .. 017442, of 28080): |
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a similar problem applies to sequence specific genes and proteins |
arises A similar problem applies to sequence specific genes and proteins |
| Match 70 (1):
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Subject (016904 .. 016959, of 28080): |
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proteins Francisco Blanco at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory has come to a similar conclusion Using directed mutagenesis his team has found that the sequence space between two natural protein domains is not populated by folded or functional conformations i e biologically relevant proteins Instead mutant sequences lack a well defined three dimensional structure They conclude |
protein will emerge Francisco Blanco at the European Molecular Biology laboratory has come to a similar conclusion Using directed mutagenesis his team has found that the sequence space between two natural protein domains is not populated by folded or functional confirmations that is proteins Instead mutant sequences lack a well defined three dimensional structure They conclude |
| Match 71 (1):
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Subject (016966 .. 017012, of 28080): |
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oth the hydrophobic core residues and the surface residues are important in determining the structure of the proteins and suggest that the appearance of a completely new fold from an existing one is unlikely to occur by evolution through a route of folded intermediate sequences emphasis added |
both the hydrophobic core residues and the surface residues are important in determining the structure of the proteins and suggest that the appearance of a completely new fold from an existing one is unlikely to occur by evolution through a route of folded intermediate sequences emphasis added |
| Match 72 (1):
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Subject (017014 .. 017046, of 28080): |
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Thus although this second neo Darwinian scenario has the advantage of starting with functional genes and proteins it also has a lethal disadvantage any process of random mutation or rearrangement in the genome |
Thus although this second neo Darwinian scenario has the advantage of starting with functional genes and proteins it also has a lethal disadvantage any process of random mutation or rearrangement in the genome |
| Match 73 (1):
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Subject (017068 .. 017118, of 28080): |
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sequences confer no survival advantage on their host organisms Yet natural selection favors only functional advantage It cannot select or favor nucleotide sequences or polypeptide chains that do not yet perform biological functions and still less will it favor sequences that efface or destroy preexisting function Evolving genes and proteins |
sequences would thus confer no survival advantage on their host organisms Yet natural selection favors only functional advantage It cannot select or favor nucleotide sequences or polypeptide chains that do not yet perform biological functions still less will it favor sequences that efface or destroy preexisting function Evolving genes and proteins |
| Match 74 (1):
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range through a series of nonfunctional intermediate sequences that natural selection will not favor or preserve but will in all probability eliminate |
range through a series of nonfunctional intermediate sequences that natural selection will not favor or preserve but will in all probability eliminate |
| Match 75 (1):
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Subject (017143 .. 017173, of 28080): |
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When this happens selection driven evolution will cease At this point neutral evolution of the genome unhinged from selective pressure may ensue but as we have seen such a process |
When this happens selection driven evolution will cease At this point neutral evolution of the genome unhinged from selective pressure may ensue but as we have already seen such a process |
| Match 76 (1):
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Subject (017183 .. 017317, of 28080): |
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even granting cosmic time Thus whether one envisions the evolutionary process beginning with a noncoding region of the genome or a preexisting functional gene the functional specificity and complexity of proteins impose very stringent limitations on the efficacy of mutation and selection In the first case function must arise first before natural selection can act to favor a novel variation In the second case function must be continuously maintained in order to prevent deleterious or lethal consequences to the organism and to allow further evolution Yet the complexity and functional specificity of proteins implies that both these conditions will be extremely difficult to meet Therefore the neo Darwinian mechanism appears to be inadequate to generate the new information present in the novel genes and proteins that arise with the Cambrian animals |
even granting a cosmic time scale Thus whether one envisions the evolutionary process beginning with a noncoding region of the genome or a preexisting functional gene the functional specificity and complexity of proteins impose very stringent limitations on the efficacy of mutation and selection In the first case function must arise first before natural selection can act to favor a novel variation In the second case function must be continuously maintained to prevent deleterious or lethal consequences to the organism and to allow for the possibility of further evolution Yet the complexity and functional speci ficity of proteins imply that both these conditions will be extremely diffi cult to meet Therefore the neo Darwinian mechanism appears inadequate to generate the new information present in the novel genes and proteins that arise with the Cambrian animals |
| Match 77 (1):
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NOVEL BODY PLANS The problems with the neo Darwinian mechanism run deeper still |
NOVEL BODY PLANS Problems with the neo Darwinian mechanism run deeper still |
| Match 78 (1):
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Subject (017335 .. 017370, of 28080): |
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explain the origin of the Cambrian animals one must account not only for new proteins and cell types but also for the origin of new body plans Within the past decade developmental biology has dramatically advanced |
explain the origin of the Cambrian animals one must account not only for new proteins and cell types but also for the origin of new body plans Within the past decade developmental biology has dramatically advanced |
| Match 79 (1):
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understanding of how body plans are built during ontogeny In the process it has also uncovered a profound difficulty |
understanding of how body plans are built during ontogeny In the process it has also uncovered a profound difficulty |
| Match 80 (1):
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Subject (017472 .. 017510, of 28080): |
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change in organisms requires attention to timing Mutations in genes that are expressed late in the development of an organism will not affect the body plan Mutations expressed early in development however could conceivably produce |
changes in the form of organisms requires attention to timing Mutations in genetic material that are expressed late in the development of an organism will not affect the body plan Mutations expressed early in development however could conceivably produce |
| Match 81 (1):
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Thus events expressed early in the development of organisms have the only realistic chance of producing large scale macroevolutionary change |
Thus events expressed early in the development of organisms have the only realistic chance of producing large scale macroevolutionary change |
| Match 82 (1):
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As John and Miklos explain 11 macroevolutionary change requires changes in very early embryogenesis |
As Miklos and Johns explain macroevolutionary change requires changes in very early embryogenesis |
| Match 83 (1):
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Subject (017555 .. 017620, of 28080): |
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Yet recent studies in developmental biology make clear that mutations expressed early in development typically have deleterious or at best neutral effects Arthur 1997 21 including mutations in crucially important 11 master regulator or hox genes For example when early acting body plan molecules or morphogens such as bicoid which helps to set up the anterior posterior head to tail axis in Drosophila are perturbed development shuts down |
Yet recent studies in developmental biology make clear that mutations expressed early in development typically have deleterious or at best neutral effects including mutations in the crucially important master regulator or hox genes For example when early acting body plan molecules or morphogens such as bicoid which helps set up the anterior posterior head to tail axis in the fly Drosophila are perturbed development shuts down |
| Match 84 (1):
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The resulting embryos die Moreover there is a good reason for this If an engineer modifies the length of the piston rods in an internal combustion engine without modifying the crankshaft accordingly the engine won t start Similarly processes of development are tightly integrated spatially and temporally in |
The resulting embryos die Moreover there is a good reason for this If an engineer modifies the length of the piston rods in an internal combustion engine without modifying the crankshaft accordingly the engine won t start Similarly processes of development are so tightly integrated spatially and temporally that changes early in |
| Match 85 (1):
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that changes early in development will require a host of other coordinated changes in separate but functionally interrelated developmental processes downstream |
that changes early in development will require a host of other coordinated changes in separate but functionally interrelated developmental processes downstream |
| Match 86 (1):
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explains A mutation disrupting formation of a spinal column and cord is more likely to be lethal than one affecting the number of fingers |
explains A mutation disrupting formation of a spinal column and cord is more likely to be lethal than one affecting the number of fingers |
| Match 87 (1):
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Subject (017864 .. 017961, of 28080): |
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F McDonald has called a great Darwinian paradox 1983 93 He notes that genes that vary within natural populations affect only minor aspects of form and function while genes that govern major changes the very stuff of macroevolution apparently do not vary or vary only to the detriment of the organism As he puts it those genetic loci that are obviously variable within natural populations do not seem to lie at the basis of many major adaptive changes while those loci that seemingly do constitute the foundation of many if not most major adaptive changes are not variable |
F McDonald has called a great Darwinian paradox He notes that genes that vary within natural populations seem to affect only minor aspects of form and function while genes that govern major changes the very stuff of macroevolution apparently do not vary or vary only to the detriment of the organism As he puts it those genetic loci that are obviously variable within natural populations do not seem to lie at the basis of many major adaptive changes while those loci that seemingly do constitute the foundation of many if not most major adaptive changes are not variable |
| Match 88 (1):
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Subject (017990 .. 018004, of 28080): |
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doesn t need namely viable genetic mutations in DNA expressed late in development do occur |
doesn t need namely viable genetic mutations in DNA expressed late in development do occur |
| Match 89 (1):
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need namely beneficial Bauplan mutations expressed early in development don t occur |
needs namely beneficial regulatory or Baupl ne mutations expressed during early development don t occur |
| Match 90 (1):
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in development don t occur Darwin wrote that nothing can be effected by natural selection unless favorable variations occur |
in development do occur if infrequently Darwin wrote that nothing can be effected by natural selection unless favorable variations occur |
| Match 91 (1):
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Yet discoveries about the genetic regulation of development suggest that variations of the kind required by neo Darwinism favorable Bauplan mutations |
Yet discoveries about the genetic regulation of development suggest that the kind of variations required by neo Darwinism favorable mutations |
| Match 92 (1):
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do not occur Developmental biology has raised another formidable problem for the mutation selection mechanism Embryological evidence has long shown that DNA does not wholly determine morphological form Goodwin |
do not occur Developmental biology has raised another formidable problem for the mutation selection mechanism Embryological evidence has long shown that DNA does not wholly determine morphological form suggesting that mutations in |
| Match 93 (1):
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Subject (018075 .. 018093, of 28080): |
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suggesting that mutations in DNA alone cannot account for the morphological changes required to build a new body plan |
suggesting that mutations in DNA alone cannot account for the morphological changes required to build a new body plan |
| Match 94 (1):
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Subject (018095 .. 018134, of 28080): |
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DNA directs protein synthesis It also helps to regulate the timing and expression of the synthesis of various proteins within cells Nevertheless DNA alone does not determine how individual proteins assemble themselves into larger systems of proteins still less does it |
DNA directs protein synthesis It also helps regulate the timing and expression of the synthesis of various proteins within cells Nevertheless DNA alone does not determine how individual proteins assemble themselves into larger systems of proteins still less does it |
| Match 95 (1):
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determine how cell types tissue types and organs arrange themselves into body plans Instead other factors such as the structure and organization of the cell membrane and cytoskeleton play important roles in determining developmental pathways that determine body plan formation during embryogenesis For example the shape and location of microtubules in the cytoskeleton influence the patterning of embryos Arrays of microtubules help to distribute the essential proteins used during development to their correct locations in the cell Of course microtubules themselves are made of many protein subunits Nevertheless the protein subunits in the cell s microtubules are identical to one another Neither they nor the genes that produce them account for the different shapes and locations of microtubule arrays that distinguish different kinds of embryos and developmental pathways As Jonathan Wells explains What matters in development is the shape and location of microtubule arrays and the shape and location of a microtubule array is not determined by its units |
determine how cell types tissue types and organs arrange themselves into body plans 113 Instead other factors such as the structure and organization of the cell membrane and cytoskeleton play important roles in determining developmental pathways that determine body plan formation during embryogenesis For example the shape and location of microtubules in the cytoskeleton influence the patterning of embryos Arrays of microtubules help distribute the essential proteins used during development to their correct location in the cell 114 Of course microtubules themselves are made of many protein subunits Nevertheless the protein subunits in the cell s microtubules are identical to one another Neither they nor the genes that produce them account for the different shapes and locations of microtubule arrays that distinguish different kinds of embryos and developmental pathways As Jonathan Wells explains What matters in development is the shape and location of microtubule arrays and the shape and location of a microtubule array is not determined by its units |
| Match 96 (1):
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At a building site builders will make use of many materials lumber wires nails drywall piping and windows Yet building materials do not determine the floor plan of the house or the arrangement of houses in a neighborhood Similarly electronic circuits are composed of many components such as resistors Capacitors and transistors But such lower level components do not determine their own arrangement in an integrated circuit Biological systems also depend on hierarchical arrangements of parts Genes and proteins are made from simple building blocks nucleotide bases and amino acids arranged in specific ways Cell types are made of among other things systems of specialized proteins Organs are made of specialized arrangements of cell types and tissues And body plans comprise specific arrangements of specialized organs Yet clearly the properties of individual proteins or indeed the lower level parts in the hierarchy generally do not determine the organization of these higher level structures and organizational patterns It follows therefore that the genetic information that codes for proteins does not determine these higher level structures either These considerations pose another challenge to the sufficiency of the neo Darwinian mechanism Neo Darwinism seeks to explain the origin of new information form and structure as |
At a building site builders will make use of many materials lumber wires nails drywall piping and windows Yet building materials do not determine the floor plan of the house or the arrangement of houses in a neighborhood Similarly electronic circuits are composed of many components such as resistors capacitors and transistors But such lower level components do not determine their own arrangement in an integrated circuit Biological systems also depend on hierarchical arrangements of parts Genes and proteins are made from simple building blocks nucleotide bases and amino acids arranged in specific ways Cell types are made of among other things systems of specialized proteins Organs are made of specialized arrangements of cell types and tissues And body plans comprise specific arrangements of organs Yet clearly the properties of individual proteins or indeed the lower level parts in the hierarchy generally do not determine the organization of the higher level structures and organizational patterns 116 It follows therefore that the genetic information that codes for proteins does not determine these higherlevel structures either These considerations pose another challenge to the sufficiency of the neo Darwinian mechanism Neo Darwinism seeks to explain the origin of new information form and structure as |
| Match 97 (1):
Reference (005258 .. 005509, of 8267): |
Subject (018301 .. 018549, of 28080): |
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At a building site builders will make use of many materials lumber wires nails drywall piping and windows Yet building materials do not determine the floor plan of the house or the arrangement of houses in a neighborhood Similarly electronic circuits are composed of many components such as resistors Capacitors and transistors But such lower level components do not determine their own arrangement in an integrated circuit Biological systems also depend on hierarchical arrangements of parts Genes and proteins are made from simple building blocks nucleotide bases and amino acids arranged in specific ways Cell types are made of among other things systems of specialized proteins Organs are made of specialized arrangements of cell types and tissues And body plans comprise specific arrangements of specialized organs Yet clearly the properties of individual proteins or indeed the lower level parts in the hierarchy generally do not determine the organization of these higher level structures and organizational patterns It follows therefore that the genetic information that codes for proteins does not determine these higher level structures either These considerations pose another challenge to the sufficiency of the neo Darwinian mechanism Neo Darwinism seeks to explain the origin of new information form and structure as a result of selection acting on randomly arising variation at a very low level within the biological hierarchy namely within the genetic text Yet major morphological innovations depend on a specificity of arrangement at a much higher level of the organizational hierarchy a level that DNA alone does not determine |
At a building site builders will make use of many materials lumber wires nails drywall piping and windows Yet building materials do not determine the floor plan of the house or the arrangement of houses in a neighborhood Similarly electronic circuits are composed of many components such as resistors capacitors and transistors But such lower level components do not determine their own arrangement in an integrated circuit Biological systems also depend on hierarchical arrangements of parts Genes and proteins are made from simple building blocks nucleotide bases and amino acids arranged in specific ways Cell types are made of among other things systems of specialized proteins Organs are made of specialized arrangements of cell types and tissues And body plans comprise specific arrangements of organs Yet clearly the properties of individual proteins or indeed the lower level parts in the hierarchy generally do not determine the organization of the higher level structures and organizational patterns 116 It follows therefore that the genetic information that codes for proteins does not determine these higherlevel structures either These considerations pose another challenge to the sufficiency of the neo Darwinian mechanism Neo Darwinism seeks to explain the origin of new information form and structure as the result of selection acting on randomly arising variation at a very low level within the biological hierarchy namely within the genetic text Yet major morphological innovations depend on a specificity of arrangement at a much higher level of the organizational hierarchy that DNA alone does not determine |
| Match 98 (1):
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Subject (018551 .. 018611, of 28080): |
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DNA is not wholly responsible for body plan morphogenesis then DNA sequences can mutate indefinitely without regard to realistic probabilistic limits and still not produce a new body plan Thus the mechanism of natural selection acting on random mutations in DNA cannot in Principle generate novel body plans including those that first arose in the Cambrian explosion SELF ORGANIZATIONAL MODELS |
DNA is not wholly responsible for body plan morphogenesis then DNA sequences can mutate indefinitely without regard to realistic probabilistic limits and still not produce a new body plan Thus the mechanism of natural selection acting on random mutations in DNA cannot in principle generate novel body plans including those that first arose in the Cambrian explosion 3 SELF ORGANIZATIONAL MODELS |
| Match 99 (1):
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has advanced a self organizational model to account for the emergence of new form and presumably the information necessary to generate it Whereas neo Darwinism attempts to explain new form as the consequence of selection acting on random mutation Kauffman suggests that selection acts not mainly on random variations but on emergent patterns of order that selforganize via the laws of nature Kauffman illustrates how this might work |
has recently advanced a self organizational model to account for the emergence of form and presumably the information necessary to generate it Whereas neo Darwinism attempts to explain new form as the consequence of selection acting on random mutation Kauffman suggests that selection acts not mainly on random variations but on emergent patterns of order that self organize via the laws of nature Kauffman illustrates how this might work |
| Match 100 (1):
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various model systems in a computer environment 1995 47 92 In one he conceives a system of buttons connected by strings Buttons represent novel genes or gene products strings represent the lawlike forces of interaction that obtain between gene products that is proteins Kauffman suggests that when the complexity of the system as represented by the number of buttons and strings reaches a critical threshold new modes of organization can arise in the system for free that is without intelligent guidance after the manner of a phase transition in chemistry |
various model systems in a computer environment In one he conceives a system of buttons connected by strings Buttons represent novel genes or gene products strings the lawlike forces of interaction that obtain between gene products that is proteins Kauffman suggests that when the complexity of the system as represented by the number of connected buttons and strings reaches a critical threshold new modes of organization can arise in the system for free that is without intelligent guidance after the manner of a phase transition in chemistry |
| Match 101 (1):
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Subject (018905 .. 018929, of 28080): |
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Another model that Kauffman develops is a system of interconnected lights Each light can flash in a variety of states on off twinkling and so |
Another model that Kauffman develops is a system of interconnected lights Each light can flash in a variety of states on off twinkling and so |
| Match 102 (1):
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Subject (018931 .. 018945, of 28080): |
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Since there is more than one possible state for each light and many lights there |
Since there is more than one possible state for each light and many lights there |
| Match 103 (1):
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a vast number of possible states that the system can adopt Further in his system rules determine how past states will influence future states Kauffman asserts that as a result of these rules the system will if properly tuned eventually produce a kind of order in which a few basic patterns of light activity recur with greater than random frequency |
a vast number of possible states that the system as a whole can adopt Further in his system rules determine how past states will in fluence future states Kauffman asserts that as a result of these rules the system will soon if properly tuned produce a kind of order in which a few basic patterns of light activity recur with greater than random frequency |
| Match 104 (1):
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these actual patterns of light activity represent a small portion of the total number of possible states in which the system can reside Kaufman suggests that self organizational laws might similarly |
these actual patterns of light activity represent a small portion of the total number of possible states in which the system can reside Kauffman suggests that self organizational laws might similarly |
| Match 105 (1):
Reference (005867 .. 005944, of 8267): |
Subject (019014 .. 019090, of 28080): |
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these actual patterns of light activity represent a small portion of the total number of possible states in which the system can reside Kaufman suggests that self organizational laws might similarly result in highly improbable biological outcomes perhaps even sequences of bases or amino acids within a much larger sequence space of possibilities Do these simulations of self organizational processes accurately model the origin of novel genetic information It is hard to think so First in both examples |
these actual patterns of light activity represent a small portion of the total number of possible states in which the system can reside Kauffman suggests that self organizational laws might similarly find highly improbable biological outcomes perhaps even sequences of bases or amino acids within a much larger sequence space of possibilities Do these simulations of self organizational processes accurately model the origin of novel genetic information It s hard to think so First in both examples |
| Match 106 (1):
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Subject (019092 .. 019114, of 28080): |
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presupposes but does not explain significant sources of preexisting information In his buttons and strings system the buttons represent proteins themselves packets of |
presupposes but does not explain significant sources of preexisting information In his buttons and strings system the buttons represent proteins themselves packets of |
| Match 107 (1):
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Subject (019116 .. 019149, of 28080): |
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and the result of preexisting genetic information Where does this information come from Kauffman doesn t say but the origin of such information is an essential part of what needs to |
and the result of preexisting genetic information Where does this information come from Kauffman doesn t say but the origin of such information is an essential part of what needs explanation in the history |
| Match 108 (1):
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Subject (019147 .. 019168, of 28080): |
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in the history of life Similarly in his light system the order that allegedly arises for for free that is apart from any |
in the history of life Similarly in his light system the order that allegedly arises for free that is apart from an |
| Match 109 (1):
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Subject (019174 .. 019204, of 28080): |
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actually arises only if the programmer of the model system tunes it in such a way as to keep it from either a generating an excessively rigid order or b devolving into chaos |
actually arises only if the programmer of the model system tunes it in such a way as to keep it from either generating an excessively rigid order or devolving into chaos |
| Match 110 (1):
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Subject (019214 .. 019272, of 28080): |
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involves an intelligent programmer selecting certain parameters and excluding others that is inputting information Second Kauffman s model systems are not constrained by functional considerations and thus are not analogous to biological systems A system of interconnected lights governed by pre programmed rules may well settle into a small number of patterns within a much larger space of possibilities But |
involves an intelligent programmer selecting certain parameters and excluding others that is inputting information Second Kauffman s model systems are not constrained by functional considerations and thus are not analogous to biological systems A system of interconnected lights governed by preprogrammed rules may well settle into a small number of patterns within a much larger space of possibilities But |
| Match 111 (1):
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these patterns have no function and need not meet any functional requirement they have no specificity analogous to that present in actual organisms Instead examination of Kauffman s model systems shows that they produce sequences or systems characterized not by specified complexity but instead by large amounts of symmetrical order or internal redundancy interspersed with aperiodicity or mere complexity |
these patterns have no function and need not meet any functional requirements they have no specificity analogous to that present in actual organisms Instead examination of Kauffman s model systems shows that they do not produce sequences or systems characterized by specified complexity but instead by large amounts of symmetrical order or internal redundancy interspersed with aperiodicity or mere complexity |
| Match 112 (1):
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Subject (019335 .. 019366, of 28080): |
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Getting a law governed system to generate repetitive patterns of flashing lights even with a certain amount of variation is clearly interesting but it is not biologically relevant On the other hand a system |
Getting a law governed system to generate repetitive patterns of flashing lights even with a certain amount of variation is clearly interesting but not biologically relevant On the other hand a system |
| Match 113 (1):
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Subject (019371 .. 019394, of 28080): |
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Eat at Joe s would model a biologically relevant self organizational process at least if such messages arose without agents previously |
Eat at Joe s would model a biologically relevant self organizational process at least if the system produced such messages without agents having previously |
| Match 114 (1):
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Subject (019401 .. 019420, of 28080): |
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In any case Kauffman s systems do not produce specified complexity and thus they do not offer promising models for explaining |
In any case Kauffman s systems do not produce specified complexity and thus do not offer promising models for explaining |
| Match 115 (1):
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Subject (019450 .. 019493, of 28080): |
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Even so Kauffman suggests that his self organizational models can specifically elucidate aspects of the Cambrian explosion According to Kauffman new Cambrian animals emerged as the result of long jump mutations that established new body plans in a discrete rather than gradual fashion |
Even so Kauffman suggests that his self organizational models can specifi cally elucidate aspects of the Cambrian explosion According to Kauffman new Cambrian animals emerged as the result of long jump mutations that established new body plans in a discrete rather than gradual fashion |
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He also recognizes that mutations affecting early development are almost inevitably harmful Thus he concludes that body plans once established will not change and that any subsequent evolution must occur within an established Bauplan And indeed the fossil record does show a curious from a Darwinian point of view top down pattern of appearance in which higher taxa and the body plans they represent appear first only later to be followed by the |
He also recognizes that mutations affecting early development are almost inevitably harmful Thus he concludes that body plans once established will not change and that any subsequent evolution must occur within an established Baupl ne And indeed the fossil record does show a curious from a Darwinian point of view top down pattern of appearance in which higher taxa and the body plans they represent appear first only later to be followed by the |
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of lower taxa representing variations within those original body designs Further as Kauffman expects body plans appear suddenly and persist without significant modification over time But here again Kauffman begs the most important question |
of lower taxa representing variations within those original body designs Further as Kauffman expects body plans appear suddenly and persist without significant modification over time But here again Kauffman begs the most important question |
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produces the new Cambrian body plans in the first place Granted he invokes long jump mutations to explain this but he identifies no specific self organizational process that can produce such mutations Moreover he concedes a principle that undermines the plausibility of his own proposal Kauffman acknowledges that mutations that occur early in development are almost inevitably deleterious Yet developmental biologists know that |
produced the new Cambrian body plans in the first place Granted he invokes long jump mutations to explain this but he identifies no specific selforganizational process that can produce such mutations Moreover he concedes a principle that undermines the plausibility of his own proposal Kauffman acknowledges that mutations that occur early in development are almost inevitably deleterious Yet developmental biologists know that |
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that have a realistic chance of producing large scale evolutionary change that is the big jumps that Kauffman invokes Though Kauffman repudiates the neo Darwinian reliance upon random mutations in favor of self organizing order in the end he must invoke the most implausible kind of random mutation in order to provide a selforganizational account of the new Cambrian body plans Clearly his model is not sufficient DESIGN |
that have a realistic chance of producing large scale evolutionary change that is the big jumps that Kauffman invokes Though Kauffman repudiates the neo Darwinian reliance upon random mutations in favor of self organizing order in the end he must invoke the most implausible kind of random mutation to provide a selforganizational account of the new Cambrian body plans Clearly his model is not sufficient 5 INTELLIGENT DESIGN |
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Darwinists such as Francisco Ayala Richard Dawkins and Richard Lewontin acknowledge that organisms appear to have been designed |
Darwinists such as Francisco Ayala Richard Dawkins and Richard Lewontin acknowledge that biological organisms appear to have been designed |
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that what Ayala calls the obvious design of living things is only apparent As Ayala explains |
that what Francisco Ayala calls the obvious design of living things is only apparent As Ayala a |
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explains The functional design of organisms and their features would therefore seem to argue for the existence of a designer It was Darwin s greatest accomplishment to show that the directive organization of living beings can be explained as the result of a natural process natural selection without any need to resort to an external agent 1994 5 According to |
explained The functional design of organisms and their features would therefore seem to argue for the existence of a designer It was Darwin s greatest accomplishment to show that the directive organization of living beings can be explained as the result of a natural process natural selection without any need to resort to a Creator or other external agent 1 According to |
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such as cyclical variations in the size of Galapagos finch |
such as cyclical variations in the size of the beaks of Galapagos finches |
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the origin of the information that arises in the Cambrian |
the origin of the new information that arises in the Cambrian |
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Studies in the history and philosophy of science have shown that many scientific theories particularly in the historical sciences are formulated and justified as inferences to the best explanation |
Studies in the history and philosophy of science have shown that many scientific theories particularly in the historical sciences are formulated and justified as inferences to the best explanation |
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Historical scientists in particular assess competing hypotheses by evaluating which hypothesis would if true provide the best explanation of some set of relevant data Those with greater explanatory power are typically judged to be better more probably true theories Darwin himself used this method of reasoning in defending his theory of universal common descent |
Historical scientists in particular assess competing hypotheses by evaluating which hypothesis would if true provide the best explanation for some set of relevant data Those with greater explanatory power are typically judged to be better more probably true theories Darwin himself used this method of reasoning in defending his theory of universal common descent |
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Moreover contemporary studies on the method of inference to the best explanation have shown that determining which among a set of competing possible explanations constitutes the best one depends upon judgments about the causal adequacy or causal powers of competing explanatory entities |
Moreover contemporary studies on the method of inference to the best explanation have shown that determining which among a set of competing possible explanations constitutes the best depends upon judgments about the causal adequacy or causal powers of the competing explanatory entities |
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mechanisms for generating biological form are not causally adequate to produce the |
mechanisms for generating biological form are not causally adequate to produce the |
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intelligent agents have causal powers sufficient to produce such increases in |
intelligent agents have causal powers sufficient to produce such increases in |
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either in the form of sequence specific lines of code or hierarchically arranged systems of parts Clearly they do In the first place intelligent human agents have demonstrated the power to produce linear sequence specific arrangements of characters Indeed experience affirms that information of this type routinely arises from the activity of intelligent agents |
either in the form of sequence specific lines of code or hierarchically arranged systems of parts Clearly they do In the first place we know that intelligent human agents have the power to produce linear sequence specific arrangements of characters Indeed experience affirms that specified complex information of this type routinely arises from the activity of intelligent agents |
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source invariably comes to a mind that of a software engineer or programmer |
source invariably we come to a mind to that of a programmer |
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experience based knowledge of information flow confirms that systems with large amounts of specified complexity especially codes and languages invariably originate from an intelligent source from a mind or personal agent |
experience based knowledge of information flow confirms that systems with large amounts of specified complexity especially codes and languages invariably originate from an intelligent source that is from a mind or personal agent |
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To quote Henry Quastler again the creation of new information is habitually associated with conscious activity |
To quote information theorist Henry Quastler the creation of new information is habitually associated with conscious activity |
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Experience teaches this obvious truth Further intelligent agents have just those necessary powers that natural selection lacks as a condition of its causal adequacy Recall that at several points in our previous analysis we demonstrated that natural selection lacks the ability to generate novel information precisely because it |
Experience teaches this obvious truth Further intelligent agents have just those necessary powers that natural selection lacks as a condition of its causal adequacy Recall that at several points in our previous analysis natural selection lacked the ability to generate novel information precisely because it |
| Match 135 (1):
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arisen Natural selection can favor new proteins and genes but only after they provide some function The job of generating new functional genes proteins and systems of proteins |
arisen Natural selection can favor new proteins and genes but only after they provide some function The job of generating new functional genes proteins and systems of proteins |
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to entirely random mutations Yet without functional criteria to guide a search through the space of possible sequences random variation is probabilistically doomed What is needed is not just a source of variation i e the freedom to search a space of possibilities or a mode of selection that can operate after the fact of a successful search but instead a means of selection that a operates during a search before success and that b is |
to entirely random mutations Yet without functional criteria to guide a search through the space of possible sequences random variation is probabilistically doomed What is needed is not just a source of variation that is the freedom to search a space of possibilities or a mode of selection that can operate after the fact of a successful search but instead a means of selection that a operates during a search before success and b is |
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about or knowledge of a functional target Demonstration of this requirement has come from an unlikely quarter genetic algorithms Genetic algorithms are programs that allegedly simulate the creative power of mutation and selection Richard Dawkins and Bernd Olaf Kuppers for example have developed computer programs that putatively simulate the production of genetic information by mutation and natural selection |
b is informed by knowledge of a functional target Demonstration of this requirement has come from an unlikely quarter genetic algorithms Genetic algorithms are programs that allegedly simulate the creative power of mutation and selection Richard Dawkins and Bernd Olaf Kuppers for example have developed computer programs that putatively simulate the production of genetic information by mutation and natural selection |
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these programs succeed only by the illicit expedient of providing the computer with a target sequence and then treating relatively greater proximity to future function i e the target sequence not actual present function as a selection criterion As David Berlinski 2000 has argued genetic algorithms need something akin to a forward looking memory in order to succeed Yet such foresighted selection has no analogue in nature In biology where differential survival depends upon maintaining function selection cannot occur before new functional sequencing arises Natural selection lacks foresight What natural selection lacks intelligent selection |
these programs only succeed by the illicit expedient of providing the computer with a target sequence and then treating relatively greater proximity to future function that is the target sequence not actual present function as a selection criterion 123 As David Berlinski has argued genetic algorithms need something akin to a forward looking memory in order to succeed 124 Yet such foresighted selection has no analogue in nature In biology where differential survival depends upon maintaining function selection cannot occur before new functional sequencing arises Natural selection lacks foresight What natural selection lacks intelligent selection |
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design provides Agents can arrange matter with distant goals in mind In their use of language |
design provides Agents can arrange matter with distant goals in mind In their use of language |
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routinely find highly isolated and improbable functional sequences amid vast spaces of combinatorial possibilities Analysis of the problem of the origin of biological information exposes a deficiency in the causal powers of natural selection that corresponds precisely to powers that agents are uniquely known to possess |
routinely find highly isolated and improbable functional sequences within a vast space of combinatorial possibilities Analysis of the problem of the origin of biological information exposes a deficiency in the causal powers of natural selection that corresponds precisely to powers that agents are uniquely known to possess |
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routinely find highly isolated and improbable functional sequences amid vast spaces of combinatorial possibilities Analysis of the problem of the origin of biological information exposes a deficiency in the causal powers of natural selection that corresponds precisely to powers that agents are uniquely known to possess Intelligent agents have foresight Agents can select functional goals before they exist They can devise or select material means to |
routinely find highly isolated and improbable functional sequences within a vast space of combinatorial possibilities Analysis of the problem of the origin of biological information exposes a deficiency in the causal powers of natural selection that corresponds precisely to powers that agents are uniquely known to possess Agents do have foresight Agents can also select functional goals before they exist They can devise or select material means to |
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and then actualize those goals in accord with a preconceived design and or independent set of functional requirements The causal powers that natural selection lacks almost by definition are associated with the attributes of consciousness and rationality with purposive intelligence Thus by invoking Intelligent Design to explain the origin of new information design theorists are not positing an arbitrary explanatory element unmotivated by a consideration of the evidence Instead |
and then actualize those goals in accord with a preconceived design and independent set of functional requirements The causal powers that natural selection lacks almost by definition are associated with the attributes of consciousness rationality and purposive intelligence Thus by invoking intelligent design to explain the origin of new information design theorists are not positing an arbitrary explanatory element unmotivated by a consideration of the evidence Instead |
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theorists are positing an entity with precisely the attributes and causal powers that the phenomenon in question requires as a condition of its production and explanation Secondly the highly specified hierarchical arrangements of parts in animal body plans also bespeak design At every level of the biological hierarchy organisms require specified and highly improbable arrangements of lower level constituents in order to maintain their form and function Genes require specified arrangements of nucleotide bases proteins require specified arrangements of amino acids new cell types require specified arrangements of systems of proteins body plans require specialized arrangements of cell types and organs |
the evidence Instead they are positing an entity with precisely the attributes and causal powers that the phenomenon in question requires as a condition of its production and explanation Second the highly specified hierarchical arrangements of parts in animal body plans also bespeak design At every level of the biological hierarchy organisms require specified and highly improbable arrangements of lower level constituents in order to maintain their form and function Genes require specified arrangements of nucleotide bases proteins require specified arrangements of amino acids new cell types require specified arrangements of proteins and systems of proteins new body plans require specialized arrangements of cell types and organs |
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theorists are positing an entity with precisely the attributes and causal powers that the phenomenon in question requires as a condition of its production and explanation Secondly the highly specified hierarchical arrangements of parts in animal body plans also bespeak design At every level of the biological hierarchy organisms require specified and highly improbable arrangements of lower level constituents in order to maintain their form and function Genes require specified arrangements of nucleotide bases proteins require specified arrangements of amino acids new cell types require specified arrangements of systems of proteins body plans require specialized arrangements of cell types and organs Not only do organisms contain information rich components such as proteins and genes they also comprise informationrich arrangements of those components and the systems that comprise them Based on experience we know that human agents |
the evidence Instead they are positing an entity with precisely the attributes and causal powers that the phenomenon in question requires as a condition of its production and explanation Second the highly specified hierarchical arrangements of parts in animal body plans also bespeak design At every level of the biological hierarchy organisms require specified and highly improbable arrangements of lower level constituents in order to maintain their form and function Genes require specified arrangements of nucleotide bases proteins require specified arrangements of amino acids new cell types require specified arrangements of proteins and systems of proteins new body plans require specialized arrangements of cell types and organs Organisms not only contain information rich components such as proteins and genes but they comprise information rich arrangements of those components and the subsystems that comprise them Based on experience we know that intelligent human agents |
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in which both individual modules and the arrangements of those modules exhibit complexity and specificity information so defined Individual transistors resistors and capacitors exhibit considerable complexity and specificity of design at a higher level of organization their specific arrangement within an integrated circuit |
in which both individual modules and also the hierarchical arrangements of those modules exhibit complexity and functional specificity information so defined Individual transistors resistors and capacitors exhibit considerable complexity and specificity of design at a higher level of organization their specific arrangement and connection within an integrated circuit |
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and reflects further design Conscious and rational agents have as part of their powers of |
an integrated circuit reflects further design Conscious and rational human agents have as a consequence of their powers of |
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we have good reason to doubt that either mutation and selection or selforganizational processes can produce |
we have good reasons to doubt that either the mutation selection mechanism or self organizational processes can produce |
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produce the information rich components systems and body plans that arose in the Cambrian |
produce the new information and body plans that arise in the Cambrian |
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information requires causal powers that we uniquely associate with conscious and rational activity with intelligent causes not purely natural processes or material mechanisms Thus based on our experience and analysis of the causal powers of various explanatory entities we can infer Intelligent Design as the |
information at whatever level requires causal powers that we uniquely associate with conscious and rational activity with intelligent causes not purely natural processes or material mechanisms Thus based on our experience and analysis of the causal powers of various explanatory processes and entities we can infer the |
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Intelligent Design as the best most causally adequate explanation for the origin of the |
intelligent design as the best most causally adequate explanation of the |
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the best most causally adequate explanation for the origin of the complex specified information |
the best explanation for the origin of the information |
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specified information required to build the Cambrian animals In other words |
fied information required to build the Cambrian animals In other words |
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explosion of Cambrian information attests to the power and activity of a purposive intelligence |
explosion in turn attest to the activity and power of a purposeful intelligence |
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1 Of course many proteins bind chemically with each other to form complexes and structures within cells Nevertheless these self organizational properties do not fully account for higher levels of organization in cells organs or body plans |
113 Of course many proteins bind chemically with each other to form complexes and structures within cells Nevertheless these self organizational properties do not fully account for higher levels of organization in cells organs or body plans |